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gained some advantage in time

  • 1 praecipio

    prae-cĭpĭo, cēpi, ceptum, 3, v. a. [capio], to take or seize beforehand, to get or receive in advance (class., esp. in the trop. sense; syn.: anticipo, praeoccupo).
    I.
    Lit.
    A.
    In gen., Lucr. 6, 1050:

    nisi aquam praecepimus ante,

    id. 6, 804:

    a publicanis pecuniam insequentis anni mutuam praeceperat,

    Caes. B. C. 3, 31:

    aliquantum viae,

    to get the start somewhat, Liv. 36, 19:

    longius spatium fugā,

    id. 22, 41 fin.:

    iter,

    id. 3, 46:

    Piraeeum quinqueremibus,

    to preoccupy, id. 32, 16, 5: mons a Lusitanis praeceptus, Sall. Fragm. ap. Gell. 10, 26, 3:

    si lac praeceperit aestus,

    i. e. have previously dried up, Verg. E. 3, 98.—
    B.
    In partic., in jurid. lang, to receive (esp. an inheritance or bequest) in advance, Plin. Ep. 5, 7, 4:

    si heres centum praecipere jussus sit,

    Dig. 30, 122; so ib. 36, 1, 63:

    quantitatem dotis,

    ib. 17, 2, 81:

    dotem,

    ib. 10, 2, 46:

    per praeceptionem hoc modo legamus: Lucius Titius hominem Stichum praecipito,

    Gai. Inst. 2, 216. —
    II.
    Trop.
    A.
    In gen., to take or obtain in advance, to anticipate:

    aliquantum ad fugam temporis Syphax et Hasdrubal praeceperunt,

    gained some advantage in time, Liv. 30, 8 fin.:

    tempus,

    id. 1, 7:

    celeres neu praecipe Parcas,

    do not hasten in advance of, do not anticipate, Stat. Th. 8, 328; so,

    veneno fata praecepit,

    Flor. 3, 9, 4: praecipio gaudia suppliciorum vestrorum, I rejoice in advance, Anton. ap. Cic. Phil. 13, 20, 45; Hirt. B. G. 8, 51; cf. Liv. 45, 1, 1:

    jam animo victoriam praecipiebant,

    figured to themselves beforehand, Caes. B. C. 3, 87 fin.; Liv. 10, 26:

    spe jam praecipit hostem,

    Verg. A. 11, 491: praecipere cogitatione futura, to conjecture or imagine beforehand, Cic. Off. 1, 23, 81:

    omnia,

    Verg. A. 6, 105; cf.:

    haec usu ventura opinione praeceperat,

    had already suspected, Caes. B. G. 7, 9:

    sed alterum mihi est certius, nec praecipiam tamen,

    Cic. Att. 10, 1, 2.—
    B.
    In partic., to give rules or precepts to any one, to advise, admonish, warn, inform, instruct, teach; to enjoin, direct, bid, order, etc. (syn.:

    mando, impero, doceo): vilici officia, quae dominus praecepit,

    Cato, R. R. 142:

    Philocomasio id praecipiendum est, ut sciat,

    Plaut. Mil. 2, 2, 92:

    quoi numquam unam rem me licet semel praecipere,

    id. As. 2, 4, 15:

    quae ego tibi praecipio, ea facito,

    id. Trin. 2, 2, 17:

    docui, monui, bene praecepi semper quae potui omnia,

    Ter. Ad. 5, 9, 6:

    quicquid praecipies, esto brevis,

    Hor. A. P. 335:

    de eloquentiā,

    Cic. de Or. 2, 11, 48:

    de agriculturā,

    Plin. 18, 24, 56, § 201:

    alicui aliquid praecipere,

    Cic. Mur. 2, 4: glossemata nobis, Asin. Gall. ap. Suet. Gram. 22:

    numerumque modumque carinis Praecipiant,

    Verg. A. 11, 329:

    cantus lugubres,

    Hor. C. 1, 24, 2:

    artem nandi,

    Ov. Tr. 2, 486:

    humanitatem,

    Plin. Ep. 1, 10, 2, etc.:

    mitem animum et mores modicis erroribus aequos Praecipit,

    enjoins, recommends, Juv. 14, 16.—With inf.:

    justitia praecipit, parcere omnibus,

    Cic. Rep. 3, 12, 21; so,

    paeoniam praecipiunt eruere noctu,

    Plin. 25, 4, 10, § 29:

    codicillos aperiri testator praecepit,

    Dig. 31, 1, 89.—With ut:

    illud potius praecipiendum fuit, ut, etc.,

    Cic. Lael. 16, 60:

    recte etiam praecipi potest in amicitiis, ne, etc.,

    id. ib. 20, 75:

    consulentibus Pythia praecepit, ut, etc.,

    Nep. Milt. 1, 3.—With subj. alone:

    praecipit atque interdicit, omnes unum peterent Indutiomarum,

    Caes. B. G. 5, 58:

    his praecepit, omnes mortales pecuniā aggrediantur,

    Sall. J. 28, 1.—With acc. and inf.:

    etiam scelere convictos nonnisi ad opus damnari praeceperat,

    Suet. Ner. 31:

    D. Claudius edicto praecepit,

    decreed, commanded, Dig. 48, 10, 15. —As subst.: praecĭpĭens, entis, m., a teacher, Cic. Rep. 1, 46, 70:

    jam prope consummata fuerit praecipientis opera,

    Quint. 2, 6, 6:

    in numero praecipientium,

    id. 2, 3, 5.—Hence, praeceptum, i, n. (acc. to II. B.), a maxim, rule, precept; an order, direction, command, bidding; an injunction, etc. (class.):

    quo praecepto ab iis diligentissime observato,

    Caes. B. G. 5, 35:

    sine praecepto ullius suā sponte struebatur acies,

    Liv. 9, 31:

    transvectae praecepto ducis alae,

    Tac. Agr. 37:

    hoc praeceptum patet latius,

    Cic. Tusc. 2, 24, 58; cf.:

    hoc praeceptum officii diligenter tenendum est,

    id. Off. 2, 14, 51.—In plur.:

    tuis monitig praeceptisque,

    Cic. Fam. 5, 13, 3:

    in quam (partem) praecepta nobis danda sunt,

    id. Inv. 2, 17, 53; 2, 34, 105:

    abundare praeceptis philosophiae,

    id. Off. 1, 1, 1:

    dare praecepta dicendi,

    id. Brut. 76, 273; cf.

    studiosis dicendi praecepta tradere,

    id. Or. 41, 141:

    deūm praecepta secuti,

    orders, commands, Verg. G. 4, 448:

    sine vi non ulla dabit (Nereus) praecepta,

    id. ib. 4, 398.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > praecipio

  • 2 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 3 aprovecharse

    1 (de alguien) to take advantage (de, of); (de algo) to make the most (de, of)
    * * *
    to take advantage, exploit
    * * *
    VPR
    1) (=abusar) to take advantage

    lo puedes usar, pero sin aprovecharte — you can use it but don't take advantage

    2) Esp (=sacar provecho de) to make the most of
    3) [en sentido sexual]

    • aprovecharse de — [+ adulto] to take advantage of; [+ niño] to abuse

    * * *
    (v.) = profit, screw, further + Posesivo + own interest, milk
    Ex. In what respects can a student profit from a knowledge of abstracts and by developing abstracting skills?.
    Ex. The article is entitled 'Are you being screwed electronically? -- ethical issues in an electronic age'.
    Ex. Hypocrites are generally regarded as morally-corrupt, cynical egoists who consciously and deliberately deceive others in order to further their own interests.
    Ex. A satisfactory balance between public and private involvement has not yet been reached and the companies involved are milking public funds.
    * * *
    aprovecharse(de)
    (v.) = take + advantage (of), piggyback [piggy-back], cash in on, prey on/upon, tap into, leverage, make + an opportunity (out) of, ride (on) + Posesivo + coattails

    Ex: It is not surprising that the networks discussed later have all taken advantage of computer processing in some form or another.

    Ex: His logic is simple: People need the help of others to be truly creative -- thought breeds thought and ideas 'piggyback' on other ideas.
    Ex: At the same time, veteran fiction writers and new authors cashing in on fame from other media continued to rule the lists.
    Ex: From being a predator, England was becoming a major commercial power on whose ships others preyed.
    Ex: It is clear that a powerful and mysterious force is pushing seniors toward greater volunteer involvement, and nonprofit groups should tap into this particularly civic age group before the Indian summer of volunteering reaches its end.
    Ex: Information seeking in electronic environments will become a collaboration among end user and various electronic systems such that users leverage their heuristic power and machines leverage algorithmic power.
    Ex: Unfortunately, there are some trying to make an opportunity out of this very turbulant situation.
    Ex: Riding the coattails of Barack Obama, Democrats picked up seven seats held by Republicans in Tuesday's election to match the seven it gained two years ago.

    (v.) = profit, screw, further + Posesivo + own interest, milk

    Ex: In what respects can a student profit from a knowledge of abstracts and by developing abstracting skills?.

    Ex: The article is entitled 'Are you being screwed electronically? -- ethical issues in an electronic age'.
    Ex: Hypocrites are generally regarded as morally-corrupt, cynical egoists who consciously and deliberately deceive others in order to further their own interests.
    Ex: A satisfactory balance between public and private involvement has not yet been reached and the companies involved are milking public funds.

    * * *

    ■aprovecharse verbo reflexivo to use to one's advantage, to take advantage: se aprovechó de Juan, she took advantage of Juan
    aprovéchate de mi buen humor y pídeme lo que quieras, make the most of my good mood and ask for anything you want
    ' aprovecharse' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    abusar
    - sangrar
    - sardina
    - aprovechar
    English:
    cash in
    - draw on
    - exploit
    - play on
    - play upon
    - advantage
    - cash
    * * *
    vpr
    1. [sacar provecho] to take advantage (de of);
    nos aprovechamos de que teníamos coche para ir a la ciudad we took advantage of the fact that we had a car to go to the city;
    se aprovechó de que nadie vigilaba para salir sin pagar she took advantage of the fact that nobody was watching to leave without paying;
    aprovecharse de las desgracias ajenas to benefit from other people's misfortunes
    2. [abusar de alguien] to take advantage (de of);
    todo el mundo se aprovecha de la ingenuidad de Marta everyone takes advantage of Marta's gullible nature;
    fue acusado de aprovecharse de una menor he was accused of child abuse
    * * *
    v/r take advantage (de of)
    * * *
    vr
    aprovecharse de : to take advantage of, to exploit
    * * *
    aprovecharse vb to take advantage [pt. took; pp. taken]

    Spanish-English dictionary > aprovecharse

  • 4 ahorrar

    v.
    to save.
    * * *
    1 (dinero, energía, etc) to save
    ■ lo gasta todo, no ahorra nada she spends it and and saves nothing
    2 (molestia, problema) to save, spare
    1 to save oneself
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) [+ dinero, energía, tiempo, trabajo] to save
    2) (=evitar) [+ disgustos, molestias, problemas] to save; [+ peligro] to avoid

    no ahorrar ataques/críticas contra algn — to show no mercy in one's attacks/criticism of sb

    no ahorrar esfuerzos — to spare no effort, be unstinting in one's efforts

    3) †† [+ esclavo] to free
    2.
    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) <dinero/energía/agua> to save; < tiempo> to save
    2) ( evitar) <molestia/viaje> (+ me/te/le etc) to save, spare
    2.
    ahorrar vi to save
    3.
    ahorrarse v pron (enf)
    a) < dinero> to save (oneself)
    b) ( evitarse) <molestia/viaje> to save oneself
    * * *
    = make + savings, save, cut + corners, make + economies.
    Ex. By replacing parts of photocopying services with advanced personal computer technology libraries should make savings sufficient to pay royalty for each page copied.
    Ex. In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.
    Ex. Consequently, we would probably often consider cutting corners and not effecting the change under all of the added entries.
    Ex. Further economies could perhaps be made by taking a closer look at the way in which our university libraries are used.
    ----
    * ahorrar dinero = save + money.
    * ahorrar el trabajo de = save + effort in.
    * ahorrar energía = save + energy.
    * ahorrar espacio = conserve + space, save + space.
    * ahorrar la molestia a Alguien = spare + Nombre + a problem.
    * ahorrar mano de obra = save + manpower.
    * ahorrar molestias = save + trouble.
    * ahorrar para cuando lleguen las vacas flacas = save for + a rainy day.
    * ahorrar para cuando lleguen tiempos difíciles = save for + a rainy day.
    * ahorrarse = shave off.
    * ahorrarse la molestia de = obviate + the need for.
    * ahorrarse la necesidad de = circumvent + the need to.
    * ahorrar tiempo = save + time.
    * ahorrar tiempo de escritura = save + typing.
    * ahorrar un montón = save + a bundle, save + a ton.
    * ahorrar un montón de dinero = save + a ton of money.
    * destinado a ahorrar dinero = money-saving.
    * que ahorran dinero = dollar-saving.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) <dinero/energía/agua> to save; < tiempo> to save
    2) ( evitar) <molestia/viaje> (+ me/te/le etc) to save, spare
    2.
    ahorrar vi to save
    3.
    ahorrarse v pron (enf)
    a) < dinero> to save (oneself)
    b) ( evitarse) <molestia/viaje> to save oneself
    * * *
    = make + savings, save, cut + corners, make + economies.

    Ex: By replacing parts of photocopying services with advanced personal computer technology libraries should make savings sufficient to pay royalty for each page copied.

    Ex: In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.
    Ex: Consequently, we would probably often consider cutting corners and not effecting the change under all of the added entries.
    Ex: Further economies could perhaps be made by taking a closer look at the way in which our university libraries are used.
    * ahorrar dinero = save + money.
    * ahorrar el trabajo de = save + effort in.
    * ahorrar energía = save + energy.
    * ahorrar espacio = conserve + space, save + space.
    * ahorrar la molestia a Alguien = spare + Nombre + a problem.
    * ahorrar mano de obra = save + manpower.
    * ahorrar molestias = save + trouble.
    * ahorrar para cuando lleguen las vacas flacas = save for + a rainy day.
    * ahorrar para cuando lleguen tiempos difíciles = save for + a rainy day.
    * ahorrarse = shave off.
    * ahorrarse la molestia de = obviate + the need for.
    * ahorrarse la necesidad de = circumvent + the need to.
    * ahorrar tiempo = save + time.
    * ahorrar tiempo de escritura = save + typing.
    * ahorrar un montón = save + a bundle, save + a ton.
    * ahorrar un montón de dinero = save + a ton of money.
    * destinado a ahorrar dinero = money-saving.
    * que ahorran dinero = dollar-saving.

    * * *
    ahorrar [A1 ]
    vt
    A
    1 ‹dinero› (guardar) to save; (pagar de menos) to save
    el dinero que hemos ahorrado para cuando me jubile the money we've set aside o put by o saved for my retirement
    compre dos y ahorre 500 pesos buy two and save 500 pesos
    2 ‹energía/agua› to save
    para ahorrar tiempo to save time
    quiero ahorrar energías para el viernes I want to save o conserve my energy for Friday
    los atacó a todos sin ahorrar críticas a su propio equipo he attacked everyone without sparing his own team (from criticism)
    B ‹molestia› (+ me/te/le etc) to save, spare
    quisiera poder ahorrarle ese mal rato I wanted to save o spare you (from) having to go through that
    me ahorrarías el viaje you would save me a trip
    ■ ahorrar
    vi
    to save
    si lo quieres comprar vas a tener que ahorrar if you want to buy it you're going to have to save up o save some money
    en lugar de ahorrar se lo gasta todo en discos instead of saving (his money) he spends it all on records
    ( enf)
    1 ‹dinero› to save (oneself)
    2 ‹disgusto/viaje› to save oneself; ‹molestia› to spare oneself, save oneself
    si no se lo cuentas te ahorrarás problemas you'll save yourself a lot of trouble if you don't tell him
    te podrías haber ahorrado el viaje you could have saved yourself the trip
    * * *

     

    ahorrar ( conjugate ahorrar) verbo transitivo
    1 ‹dinero/energía/agua› to save;
    ‹ tiempo› to save
    2 ( evitar) ‹molestia/viaje› (+ me/te/le etc) to save, spare
    verbo intransitivo
    to save
    ahorrarse verbo pronominal ( enf)

    b) ( evitarse) ‹molestia/viaje› to save oneself

    ahorrar verbo transitivo
    1 to save
    2 (evitar) to spare: este camino nos ahorra pasar por el centro, this road saves us having to go through the centre
    ' ahorrar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    tanta
    - tanto
    - evitar
    English:
    conserve
    - economize
    - lay aside
    - put aside
    - put away
    - put by
    - save
    - save up
    - set aside
    - put
    - set
    - to
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [dinero] to save;
    ahorró tres millones she saved three million;
    comprando a granel ahorras bastante dinero you can save quite a lot of money by buying in bulk
    2. [economizar] [energía] to save;
    es importante ahorrar agua it's important to save water;
    por esta carretera ahorras tiempo it's quicker if you take this road;
    lo haremos aquí para ahorrar tiempo we'll do it here to save time
    3. [evitar]
    gracias, me has ahorrado un viaje thank you, you've saved me a journey;
    ahórrame los detalles spare me the details;
    no ahorraremos esfuerzos para conseguir nuestro propósito we will spare no effort to achieve our aim;
    no se lo voy a contar para ahorrarle un disgusto I'm not going to tell him, so as not to upset him
    ♦ vi
    to save;
    es incapaz de ahorrar he doesn't know how to save (money)
    * * *
    I v/t save;
    ahorrar algo a alguien save s.o. (from) sth;
    no ahorrar sacrificios make all sorts of sacrifices
    II v/i save (up)
    * * *
    1) : to save (money)
    2) : to spare, to conserve
    : to save up
    * * *
    ahorrar vb to save

    Spanish-English dictionary > ahorrar

  • 5 explotar

    v.
    1 to exploit (person).
    El tipo explota a los empleados The guy exploits the employees.
    El minero explota los recursos The miner exploits the resources.
    2 to explode.
    El minero explotó la carga The miner exploded the charge.
    La carga explotó The charge exploded.
    María explotó por la ofensa Mary exploded because of the offense.
    3 to use, to take unfair advantage of.
    El timador usó a las personas The swindler used the people.
    4 to explode on.
    Nos explotó una bomba A bomb exploded on us.
    * * *
    1 (sacar provecho) to exploit; (mina) to work; (tierra) to cultivate; (industria) to operate, run; (recursos) to tap, exploit
    2 peyorativo (personas) to exploit
    3 (bomba) to explode
    1 (explosionar) to explode, blow up
    * * *
    verb
    2) to run, operate
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=usar) [+ recursos, riquezas] to exploit; [+ planta] to run, operate; [+ mina] to work
    2) (=usar excesivamente) [+ obreros] to exploit; [+ situación] to exploit, make capital out of
    3) [+ bomba] to explode
    2.
    VI [bomba] to explode, go off

    cayó sin explotar — it fell but did not go off, it landed without going off

    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) < tierra> to exploit, work; < mina> to operate, work; < negocio> to run, operate
    b) <idea/debilidad> to exploit
    2) < trabajador> to exploit
    2.
    a) bomba to explode, go off; caldera/máquina to explode, blow up
    b) (fam) persona to explode, to blow a fuse (colloq)
    * * *
    = deploy, explode, exploit, harness, tap, burst, blow up, cash in on, prey on/upon, detonate, milk, mine, blow + a fuse, ride (on) + Posesivo + coattails, go off.
    Ex. The article presents the results of trials in which the model was deployed to classify aspects of the construction industry, such as construction norms and regulations.
    Ex. Other systems also employ a thesaurus in offering the facility to explode search profiles.
    Ex. The Library of Congress List of Subject Headings (LCSH) can be exploited as a general index, since it shows LCC numbers for many of the headings listed.
    Ex. When computers were first harnessed for information retrieval and cataloguing applications, the information retrieval systems, and some of the cataloguing systems developed in different environments.
    Ex. It must be pointed out, however, that the potential for online catalogs to increase library staff productivity has hardly been tapped.
    Ex. The article 'Will the CD bubble burst: conflicting messages on the future of electronic publishing' considers the future of the CD-ROM market.
    Ex. The article 'The library has blown up!' relates the short circuit in the main electrical circuit board of Porstmouth Public Library caused by electricians who were carrying out routine work.
    Ex. At the same time, veteran fiction writers and new authors cashing in on fame from other media continued to rule the lists.
    Ex. From being a predator, England was becoming a major commercial power on whose ships others preyed.
    Ex. There has been an explosion in terminology detonated by developments related to XML (eXtensible Markup Language).
    Ex. A satisfactory balance between public and private involvement has not yet been reached and the companies involved are milking public funds.
    Ex. For instance, if children are doing a project work on dogs, they will hunt out anything and everything that so much as mentions them and the bits thus mined are assiduously transcribed into project folders.
    Ex. He simply blew a fuse and decided to go out on the road, spitefully apologizing again and again, until he got it right.
    Ex. Riding the coattails of Barack Obama, Democrats picked up seven seats held by Republicans in Tuesday's election to match the seven it gained two years ago.
    Ex. My hand looks like a hand grenade went off near it -- all cut up, bruised and with perforations by small bits of flying glass.
    ----
    * explotar al máximo = realise + to its full potential, realise + the potential.
    * explotar beneficios = exploit + benefits.
    * hacer explotar = blow up.
    * por explotar = untapped.
    * sin explotar = untapped, unexploded.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) < tierra> to exploit, work; < mina> to operate, work; < negocio> to run, operate
    b) <idea/debilidad> to exploit
    2) < trabajador> to exploit
    2.
    a) bomba to explode, go off; caldera/máquina to explode, blow up
    b) (fam) persona to explode, to blow a fuse (colloq)
    * * *
    = deploy, explode, exploit, harness, tap, burst, blow up, cash in on, prey on/upon, detonate, milk, mine, blow + a fuse, ride (on) + Posesivo + coattails, go off.

    Ex: The article presents the results of trials in which the model was deployed to classify aspects of the construction industry, such as construction norms and regulations.

    Ex: Other systems also employ a thesaurus in offering the facility to explode search profiles.
    Ex: The Library of Congress List of Subject Headings (LCSH) can be exploited as a general index, since it shows LCC numbers for many of the headings listed.
    Ex: When computers were first harnessed for information retrieval and cataloguing applications, the information retrieval systems, and some of the cataloguing systems developed in different environments.
    Ex: It must be pointed out, however, that the potential for online catalogs to increase library staff productivity has hardly been tapped.
    Ex: The article 'Will the CD bubble burst: conflicting messages on the future of electronic publishing' considers the future of the CD-ROM market.
    Ex: The article 'The library has blown up!' relates the short circuit in the main electrical circuit board of Porstmouth Public Library caused by electricians who were carrying out routine work.
    Ex: At the same time, veteran fiction writers and new authors cashing in on fame from other media continued to rule the lists.
    Ex: From being a predator, England was becoming a major commercial power on whose ships others preyed.
    Ex: There has been an explosion in terminology detonated by developments related to XML (eXtensible Markup Language).
    Ex: A satisfactory balance between public and private involvement has not yet been reached and the companies involved are milking public funds.
    Ex: For instance, if children are doing a project work on dogs, they will hunt out anything and everything that so much as mentions them and the bits thus mined are assiduously transcribed into project folders.
    Ex: He simply blew a fuse and decided to go out on the road, spitefully apologizing again and again, until he got it right.
    Ex: Riding the coattails of Barack Obama, Democrats picked up seven seats held by Republicans in Tuesday's election to match the seven it gained two years ago.
    Ex: My hand looks like a hand grenade went off near it -- all cut up, bruised and with perforations by small bits of flying glass.
    * explotar al máximo = realise + to its full potential, realise + the potential.
    * explotar beneficios = exploit + benefits.
    * hacer explotar = blow up.
    * por explotar = untapped.
    * sin explotar = untapped, unexploded.

    * * *
    explotar [A1 ]
    vt
    A
    1 ‹tierra› to exploit, work; ‹mina› to operate, work, exploit; ‹negocio› to run, operate
    2 (sacar provecho de) to exploit
    supo explotar esta idea al máximo she knew how to exploit this idea to the full o how to make the most of this idea
    sabe explotar los puntos flacos de su rival he knows how to exploit his opponent's weak points
    B ‹trabajador› to exploit
    ■ explotar
    vi
    1 «bomba» to explode, go off; «caldera/máquina» to explode, blow up
    2 ( fam); «persona» to explode, to blow a fuse ( colloq), to go through the roof ( colloq)
    * * *

     

    explotar ( conjugate explotar) verbo transitivo
    a) ‹ tierra› to exploit, work;

    ‹ mina› to operate, work;
    ‹ negocio› to run, operate
    b) ‹idea/debilidad› to exploit


    verbo intransitivo

    [caldera/máquina] to explode, blow up
    b) (fam) [ persona] to explode, to blow a fuse (colloq)

    explotar
    I verbo intransitivo (un artefacto) to explode, go off
    II verbo transitivo
    1 (desarrollar, utilizar) to exploit
    (una mina) to work
    (la tierra) to cultivate
    2 (a una persona) to exploit
    ' explotar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    estallar
    - jugo
    - exprimir
    English:
    blow up
    - explode
    - exploit
    - go off
    - milk
    - prey on
    - rag
    - shell-hole
    - tap
    - untapped
    - use
    - flare
    - mileage
    - prey
    - set
    - top
    - undeveloped
    - work
    * * *
    1. [niños, trabajadores] to exploit;
    en esta empresa explotan a los trabajadores this firm exploits its workers
    2. [recursos naturales] to exploit;
    [fábrica, negocio] to run, to operate; [terreno] to farm; [mina] to work
    3. [tema, asunto, situación] to exploit
    1. [bomba, explosivo, petardo] to explode, to go off;
    [globo, neumático, caldera] to explode, to burst
    2. [persona] to explode (with rage)
    * * *
    I v/t
    1 tierra, mina work, exploit
    2 situación take advantage of, exploit
    3 trabajador exploit
    II v/i go off, explode; fig
    explode, blow a fuse fam
    * * *
    1) : to exploit
    2) : to operate, to run
    estallar, reventar: to explode
    * * *
    1. (bomba, etc) to explode / to go off
    2. (mina) to work
    3. (tierra) to farm
    4. (aprovechar) to exploit

    Spanish-English dictionary > explotar

  • 6 taller

    m.
    1 workshop (lugar de trabajo).
    taller de artesanía craft studio
    2 garage (automobiles).
    taller mecánico o de reparaciones garage, repair shop
    3 workshop (cursillo, seminario).
    4 factory, works.
    * * *
    1 (obrador) workshop
    2 (de artista) studio
    3 (en fábrica) shop, workshop
    4 AUTOMÓVIL garage, repair shop
    \
    taller de reparaciones garage, repair shop
    taller de teatro drama workshop
    taller mecánico garage, repair shop
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    SM (Téc, Educ, Teat) workshop; (=fábrica) factory, mill; (Aut) garage, repair shop; (Arte) studio; (Cos) workroom; [en lenguaje sindical] shop

    taller de coches — car repair shop, garage ( for repairs)

    taller de teatro — theatre workshop, drama workshop

    taller de trabajo — [en congreso etc] workshop

    * * *
    1)
    a) (Auto) garage, repair shop (AmE)
    b) (de carpintero, técnico) workshop
    2) (Educ) workshop
    * * *
    = shop, workshop, shop floor, studio, machine shop, mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.
    Ex. In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.
    Ex. The customers preferred to go in by a glazed door set in the shop-front and giving onto the street, even though this meant going down some steps, the floor of the workshop being below road-level.
    Ex. The system is being used daily on the shop floor and has virtually eliminated the production of low quality parts that must be scrapped.
    Ex. The author describes the design of the new studios which aim to be as flexible as possible.
    Ex. The questionnaire was then sent to machine shops throughout the State of Oklahoma.
    Ex. Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.
    Ex. Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.
    Ex. Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.
    ----
    * escuela taller = technical school.
    * jefe de taller = overseer.
    * taller artesanal = arts and crafts workshop.
    * taller de asesoramiento jurídico = legal advice surgery.
    * taller de chapa y pintura = bodywork workshop, bodywork garage.
    * taller de encuadernación = bindery.
    * taller de fundición = foundry.
    * taller de fundición de tipos = type-foundry, type-foundry.
    * taller de imprenta = printing house, printing firm, printing company, print shop.
    * taller de impresión = print shop, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller de máquinas = machine shop.
    * taller de mecánica = garage, mechanic garage.
    * taller de reparación de zapatos = shoe repair shop.
    * taller de reprografía = reprographics workshop.
    * taller de restauración = restoration workshop.
    * taller de trabajo = workshop, study school.
    * taller de trabajo esclavo = sweatshop.
    * taller de trabajo sobre composición = writing workshop.
    * taller gráfico = printing company, printing press, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller mecánico = mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.
    * * *
    1)
    a) (Auto) garage, repair shop (AmE)
    b) (de carpintero, técnico) workshop
    2) (Educ) workshop
    * * *
    = shop, workshop, shop floor, studio, machine shop, mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.

    Ex: In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.

    Ex: The customers preferred to go in by a glazed door set in the shop-front and giving onto the street, even though this meant going down some steps, the floor of the workshop being below road-level.
    Ex: The system is being used daily on the shop floor and has virtually eliminated the production of low quality parts that must be scrapped.
    Ex: The author describes the design of the new studios which aim to be as flexible as possible.
    Ex: The questionnaire was then sent to machine shops throughout the State of Oklahoma.
    Ex: Thus, in order to replace the punctured tire by a new one, the automobile should be driven to a mechanic workshop nearby.
    Ex: Both the mechanic garage and the bodywork workshop suffered extensive damage to the roof, and 11 cars belonging to customers were also damaged by heat and smoke during the fire.
    Ex: Each time it's been in the garage, it drives OK for about 10-15 miles, before starting to play up again.
    * escuela taller = technical school.
    * jefe de taller = overseer.
    * taller artesanal = arts and crafts workshop.
    * taller de asesoramiento jurídico = legal advice surgery.
    * taller de chapa y pintura = bodywork workshop, bodywork garage.
    * taller de encuadernación = bindery.
    * taller de fundición = foundry.
    * taller de fundición de tipos = type-foundry, type-foundry.
    * taller de imprenta = printing house, printing firm, printing company, print shop.
    * taller de impresión = print shop, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller de máquinas = machine shop.
    * taller de mecánica = garage, mechanic garage.
    * taller de reparación de zapatos = shoe repair shop.
    * taller de reprografía = reprographics workshop.
    * taller de restauración = restoration workshop.
    * taller de trabajo = workshop, study school.
    * taller de trabajo esclavo = sweatshop.
    * taller de trabajo sobre composición = writing workshop.
    * taller gráfico = printing company, printing press, printing firm, printing house.
    * taller mecánico = mechanic workshop, mechanic garage, garage.

    * * *
    A
    1 ( Auto) garage, repair shop ( AmE)
    2 (de carpintero, técnico) workshop
    Compuestos:
    garage, vehicle repair shop ( AmE frml)
    mpl printing works
    garage, vehicle repair shop ( AmE frml)
    B ( Educ) workshop
    * * *

     

    taller sustantivo masculino
    1
    a) (Auto) tb


    b) (de carpintero, técnico) workshop

    2 (Educ) workshop
    taller sustantivo masculino
    1 (lugar de trabajo) workshop
    (de un artista) studio
    Educ workshop
    2 Auto taller mecánico o de reparaciones, garage, US repair shop
    ' taller' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    actualidad
    - alfarería
    - bregar
    - camisería
    - carpintería
    - cristalería
    - ella
    - estirón
    - fundición
    - ganar
    - imprenta
    - lijadora
    - presupuesto
    - relojería
    - sacar
    - sillería
    - sobrepasar
    - superar
    - tapicería
    - cabeza
    - grúa
    - imaginar
    - montallantas
    - refaccionaria
    - reparación
    - volver
    - zapatería
    English:
    garage
    - have
    - pottery
    - shop
    - studio
    - workshop
    - work
    * * *
    taller nm
    1. [lugar de trabajo] [de ebanista, artesano] workshop, studio;
    [de artista] studio taller de artesanía craft studio;
    taller de confección dressmaker's workshop;
    taller de costura dressmaker's workshop;
    talleres gráficos print shop, printing works
    2. [de reparación de vehículos] garage, repair shop
    taller de bicicletas bicycle (repair) shop;
    taller mecánico garage, repair shop;
    taller de reparaciones garage, repair shop
    3. [sección de fábrica] shop
    taller de montaje assembly shop
    4. [cursillo, seminario] workshop;
    taller de teatro/títeres theatre/puppet workshop
    * * *
    m workshop
    * * *
    taller nm
    1) : shop, workshop
    2) : studio (of an artist)
    * * *
    1. (de coches) garage
    2. (de formación) workshop
    3. (de artista) studio

    Spanish-English dictionary > taller

  • 7 comercio

    m.
    1 trade.
    libre comercio free trade
    comercio exterior/interior foreign/domestic trade
    comercio justo fair trade
    2 shop, store (tienda).
    3 shops (British), stores (United States).
    4 commerce, trade, dealing, business.
    5 commercial institution, business, business establishment, commerce.
    6 place of business, shop.
    pres.indicat.
    1st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: comerciar.
    * * *
    1 (ocupación) commerce, trade
    2 (tienda) shop, store
    3 figurado (trato sexual) dealings plural, intercourse
    \
    comercio al por mayor wholesale trade
    comercio al por menor retail trade
    comercio exterior foreign trade
    libre comercio free trade
    * * *
    noun m.
    1) commerce, trade
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=actividad) trade, commerce

    comercio E, comercio electrónico — e-commerce

    comercio justo — (Com) fair trade

    cámara 1., 3)
    2) (=tienda) shop, store (EEUU)

    ¿a qué hora cierran hoy los comercios? — what time do the shops o stores close today?

    ha comenzado la huelga del comercio — the shopkeepers' o (EEUU) storekeepers' strike has started

    3) (=intercambio)
    * * *
    a) ( actividad) trade

    el comercio de armas/pieles — the arms/fur trade

    b) ( tiendas)

    hoy cierra el comercio — the stores (AmE) o (BrE) shops are closed today

    c) ( tienda) store (AmE), shop (BrE)
    * * *
    = business [businesses, -pl.], commerce, shop, store, trade, trading, retailer, commercial outlet, merchandising, trafficking, traffic, parlour [parlor, -USA].
    Ex. The treatise arose from Kaiser's work in indexing information relating to business and industry.
    Ex. Non-bibliographic data bases are particularly used for businesses and industry to extract information in the fields of business, economics, trade and commerce.
    Ex. In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.
    Ex. The cheapest of these machines costs under $100 and they can be bought in stores, supermarkets and by mail-order.
    Ex. Non-bibliographic data bases are particularly used for businesses and industry to extract information in the fields of business, economics, trade and commerce.
    Ex. The detailed analysis of the figures of turnover for 1979 give only a cross-sectional analysis of one year's trading.
    Ex. Nowadays there is a clear three-part division of the book trade into publishers, wholesalers, printers, and retailers, but in the hand-press period the functions of book traders overlapped to a much greater extent.
    Ex. People do not come to the public library for alternative material to the high street commercial outlet.
    Ex. Another main trend emerging is merchandising, where the public library is set up in a similar way to a retail store with items on sale.
    Ex. The author calls for state and federal laws to make the trafficking in fraudulently obtained subscriber IDs and Passwords.
    Ex. She wrote for the daily press on the manners and morals of society, on the plight of London's working women and children, and on the international traffic in women.
    Ex. This article focuses especially on cultural practices that encourage reading in social settings, including the school, Sunday school, public library, and domestic parlour.
    ----
    * Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles y Comercio (GATT) = General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
    * cadena de comercios = retail chain.
    * cajero de comercio = checkout cashier.
    * cámara de comercio = chamber of commerce.
    * comercio agrícola = agribusiness.
    * comercio de armas = arms trade.
    * comercio de drogas = drug trade.
    * comercio de esclavos = slave trade.
    * comercio de la música = music trade.
    * comercio del libro = bookselling [book selling], book trade [booktrade].
    * comercio del libro, el = book business, the.
    * comercio de pieles = fur trade.
    * comercio electrónico = electronic commerce (e-commerce), electronic business (e-business), online business.
    * comercio en línea = online business.
    * comercio exterior = foreign trade.
    * comercio internacional = world trade, international trade, international business.
    * comercio justo = fair trade.
    * comercio sexual = sex trade.
    * Comisión Federal de Comercio = Federal Trade Commission.
    * Denominación de Productos para las Estadísticas del Comercio Externo de la = Nomenclature of Goods for the External Trade Statistics of the Community and Statistics of Trade between Member States (NIMEXE).
    * directivo del comercio minorista = retail executive.
    * EFTA, la (Asociación Europea para el Libre Comercio) = EFTA (European Free Trade Association).
    * libre comercio = free trade, free movement of goods.
    * Ministerio de Comercio = Department of Trade.
    * Ministerio de Comercio e Industria = Department of Trade and Industry.
    * mundo del comercio del libro = book-trade life.
    * Oficina para el Mejor Comercio = Better Business Bureau.
    * Organización Mundial para el Comercio = World Trade Organization (WTO).
    * paso del comercio = flow of commerce.
    * * *
    a) ( actividad) trade

    el comercio de armas/pieles — the arms/fur trade

    b) ( tiendas)

    hoy cierra el comercio — the stores (AmE) o (BrE) shops are closed today

    c) ( tienda) store (AmE), shop (BrE)
    * * *
    = business [businesses, -pl.], commerce, shop, store, trade, trading, retailer, commercial outlet, merchandising, trafficking, traffic, parlour [parlor, -USA].

    Ex: The treatise arose from Kaiser's work in indexing information relating to business and industry.

    Ex: Non-bibliographic data bases are particularly used for businesses and industry to extract information in the fields of business, economics, trade and commerce.
    Ex: In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.
    Ex: The cheapest of these machines costs under $100 and they can be bought in stores, supermarkets and by mail-order.
    Ex: Non-bibliographic data bases are particularly used for businesses and industry to extract information in the fields of business, economics, trade and commerce.
    Ex: The detailed analysis of the figures of turnover for 1979 give only a cross-sectional analysis of one year's trading.
    Ex: Nowadays there is a clear three-part division of the book trade into publishers, wholesalers, printers, and retailers, but in the hand-press period the functions of book traders overlapped to a much greater extent.
    Ex: People do not come to the public library for alternative material to the high street commercial outlet.
    Ex: Another main trend emerging is merchandising, where the public library is set up in a similar way to a retail store with items on sale.
    Ex: The author calls for state and federal laws to make the trafficking in fraudulently obtained subscriber IDs and Passwords.
    Ex: She wrote for the daily press on the manners and morals of society, on the plight of London's working women and children, and on the international traffic in women.
    Ex: This article focuses especially on cultural practices that encourage reading in social settings, including the school, Sunday school, public library, and domestic parlour.
    * Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles y Comercio (GATT) = General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
    * cadena de comercios = retail chain.
    * cajero de comercio = checkout cashier.
    * cámara de comercio = chamber of commerce.
    * comercio agrícola = agribusiness.
    * comercio de armas = arms trade.
    * comercio de drogas = drug trade.
    * comercio de esclavos = slave trade.
    * comercio de la música = music trade.
    * comercio del libro = bookselling [book selling], book trade [booktrade].
    * comercio del libro, el = book business, the.
    * comercio de pieles = fur trade.
    * comercio electrónico = electronic commerce (e-commerce), electronic business (e-business), online business.
    * comercio en línea = online business.
    * comercio exterior = foreign trade.
    * comercio internacional = world trade, international trade, international business.
    * comercio justo = fair trade.
    * comercio sexual = sex trade.
    * Comisión Federal de Comercio = Federal Trade Commission.
    * Denominación de Productos para las Estadísticas del Comercio Externo de la = Nomenclature of Goods for the External Trade Statistics of the Community and Statistics of Trade between Member States (NIMEXE).
    * directivo del comercio minorista = retail executive.
    * EFTA, la (Asociación Europea para el Libre Comercio) = EFTA (European Free Trade Association).
    * libre comercio = free trade, free movement of goods.
    * Ministerio de Comercio = Department of Trade.
    * Ministerio de Comercio e Industria = Department of Trade and Industry.
    * mundo del comercio del libro = book-trade life.
    * Oficina para el Mejor Comercio = Better Business Bureau.
    * Organización Mundial para el Comercio = World Trade Organization (WTO).
    * paso del comercio = flow of commerce.

    * * *
    1 (actividad) trade
    durante este período se desarrolló el comercio entre los dos países during this period trade between the two countries developed
    el mundo del comercio the world of commerce, the business world
    el comercio de armas/pieles the arms/fur trade
    libre1 (↑ libre (1))
    2
    (conjunto de establecimientos): hoy cierra el comercio the stores ( AmE) o ( BrE) shops are closed today
    el comercio no secundó la huelga the storekeepers ( AmE) o ( BrE) shopkeepers did not support the strike
    3 (tienda) store ( AmE), shop ( BrE)
    Compuestos:
    sexual intercourse
    e-commerce
    foreign trade
    domestic trade
    ( Econ) fair trade
    * * *

     

    Del verbo comerciar: ( conjugate comerciar)

    comercio es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    comerció es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

    Multiple Entries:
    comerciar    
    comercio
    comerciar ( conjugate comerciar) verbo intransitivo
    to trade, do business;
    comercio en algo to trade o deal in sth
    comercio sustantivo masculino


    el mundo del comercio the world of commerce
    b) ( tiendas):

    ◊ hoy cierra el comercio the stores (AmE) o (BrE) shops are closed today

    c) ( tienda) store (AmE), shop (BrE)

    comerciar verbo intransitivo to trade: comercian con antigüedades, they trade in antiques
    comercio sustantivo masculino
    1 (establecimiento) shop
    2 (relación) commerce, trade
    comercio exterior, foreign trade
    comercio interior, domestic trade
    ' comercio' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    cámara
    - cambiar
    - interior
    - libertad
    - local
    - minorista
    - mostrador
    - mundial
    - recaudación
    - red
    - rótulo
    - abierto
    - abrir
    - cerrar
    - cuenta
    - exterior
    - falluca
    - impulsar
    - impulso
    - liberalizar
    - libre
    - marítimo
    - propietario
    - subdirector
    - sucursal
    English:
    arm's length
    - brisk
    - business
    - Chamber of Commerce
    - commerce
    - develop
    - development
    - DTI
    - embargo
    - export
    - free trade
    - FTC
    - overseas
    - promote
    - promotion
    - slave-trade
    - trade
    - trading
    - trading nation
    - wholesale trade
    - chamber
    - e-commerce
    - free
    - good
    - shop
    * * *
    1. [de productos] trade;
    comercio de aceite/esclavos oil/slave trade;
    libre comercio free trade
    Informát comercio electrónico e-commerce;
    comercio exterior foreign trade;
    comercio interior domestic trade;
    comercio internacional international trade;
    comercio justo fair trade
    2. [actividad] business, commerce
    comercio mayorista wholesale trade;
    comercio minorista retail trade
    3. [tienda] shop, store
    comercio on-line o en línea on-line shop
    4. [conjunto de tiendas] Br shops, US stores;
    el comercio cierra mañana por ser festivo the Br shops o US stores are closed tomorrow because it's a holiday
    * * *
    m
    1 actividad trade; fig
    dealings pl ;
    libre comercio free trade
    2 local store, shop
    * * *
    1) : commerce, trade
    2) negocio: business, place of business
    * * *
    1. (negocio) trade
    2. (tienda) shop

    Spanish-English dictionary > comercio

  • 8 aprovecharse (de)

    (v.) = take + advantage (of), piggyback [piggy-back], cash in on, prey on/upon, tap into, leverage, make + an opportunity (out) of, ride (on) + Posesivo + coattails
    Ex. It is not surprising that the networks discussed later have all taken advantage of computer processing in some form or another.
    Ex. His logic is simple: People need the help of others to be truly creative -- thought breeds thought and ideas 'piggyback' on other ideas.
    Ex. At the same time, veteran fiction writers and new authors cashing in on fame from other media continued to rule the lists.
    Ex. From being a predator, England was becoming a major commercial power on whose ships others preyed.
    Ex. It is clear that a powerful and mysterious force is pushing seniors toward greater volunteer involvement, and nonprofit groups should tap into this particularly civic age group before the Indian summer of volunteering reaches its end.
    Ex. Information seeking in electronic environments will become a collaboration among end user and various electronic systems such that users leverage their heuristic power and machines leverage algorithmic power.
    Ex. Unfortunately, there are some trying to make an opportunity out of this very turbulant situation.
    Ex. Riding the coattails of Barack Obama, Democrats picked up seven seats held by Republicans in Tuesday's election to match the seven it gained two years ago.

    Spanish-English dictionary > aprovecharse (de)

  • 9 claro

    adj.
    1 obvious, apparent, clear, crisp.
    2 clear, bright, clear-cut, articulate.
    3 definite, distinct.
    intj.
    sure, sure enough, of course.
    m.
    1 clearing, glade, clear space, clear.
    2 gap.
    3 Claro.
    * * *
    1 (gen) clear
    2 (iluminado) bright, well-lit
    3 (color) light
    4 (salsa etc) thin; (café, chocolate, etc) weak
    5 (evidente) clear
    1 clearly
    1 (gen) gap, space; (de bosque) clearing
    2 (en el pelo) bald patch
    ► interjección ¡claro!
    1 of course!
    ■ ¡claro que no puedes! of course you can't!
    \
    a las claras openly
    dejar algo claro to make something clear
    estar claro to be clear
    ¡lo llevas claro! / ¡lo tienes claro! familiar you've got it coming to you!
    más claro,-a que el agua familiar as clear as daylight
    poner en claro to make plain, clear up
    sacar en claro to get out
    claro de luna moonlight
    mente clara figurado clear mind
    ————————
    1 (gen) gap, space; (de bosque) clearing
    2 (en el pelo) bald patch
    * * *
    1. (f. - clara)
    adj.
    4) fair, light
    5) weak, thin
    2. adv.
    2) sure
    3. noun m.
    * * *
    1. ADJ
    1) (=no oscuro) [piel] fair; [color] light, pale

    un vestido verde claro — a light o pale green dress

    2) (=evidente)
    a) [con sustantivos] [ejemplo, prueba, ventaja] clear; [inconveniente] obvious; [desastre] total, absolute

    España ganó por un claro 15-6 — Spain won a decisive 15-6 victory, Spain were clear winners by 15-6

    ... aseguró, en clara referencia a sus superiores —... he asserted, clearly referring o in an obvious reference to his superiors

    b) [con verbos]

    • dejar algo claro — to make sth clear

    dejar las cosas claras o en claro — to get things clear, get things straight *

    • estar claro — to be clear

    ¿está claro? — is that clear?

    estar claro que — to be clear that, be obvious that

    está claro que así no vamos a ninguna parte — it's clear o obvious that we'll get nowhere like this

    • quedar claro — to be clear

    si te lees la bibliografía, te quedará todo más claro — if you read the books on the reading list, it'll all be clearer to you o you'll have a better idea of things

    • tener algo claro — to be sure of sth, be clear about sth

    ni siquiera tengo claro lo que me espera mañana — I'm not even sure o clear what's in store for me tomorrow

    no lo tengo nada claro — I'm not at all sure, I don't really know

    c)

    a las claras —

    las cuentas claras —

    llevarlo Esp o tenerlo claro iró —

    sacar algo en claro (de algo) —

    solo hemos sacado en claro que no pretende dimitir — all that we can safely o definitely say is that he has no intention of resigning

    lo único que la policía consiguió sacar en claro durante el interrogatorio — the only definite thing the police got from the interview

    ver algo claro —

    3) (=poco espeso) [té, café] weak; [caldo] thin
    4) (=luminoso) [día, mañana] bright; [habitación, casa] light, bright
    5) (=transparente) [agua] clear; [tejido] transparent
    6) (=nítido) [sonido, voz] clear; [imagen] sharp, clear
    7) (=escaso) [pelo] thin; [bosque] light, sparse
    8) (=preciso) [idea] clear

    una mente clara — (lit) a clear mind; (fig) a clear thinker

    9) (=sincero) frank
    2. ADV
    1) (=con precisión) [oír, ver, hablar] clearly
    2) (=sinceramente) frankly

    • hablar claro — to speak frankly, be frank

    3) [tras invitaciones, peticiones] sure

    -¿puedo usar tu coche mañana? -¡claro! — "can I use your car tomorrow?" - "sure!"

    -¿queréis venir a cenar? -¡claro! — "would you like to come to dinner?" - "sure!"

    4) [uso enfático]

    ¡claro! por eso estaba ayer tan rara — of course! that's why she was acting so funny yesterday

    a menos que, claro está, él también la conozca — unless of course he knows her too

    -¿por qué no te disfrazas tú? -¡claro, para que os riáis de mí todos! — "why don't you dress up?" - "oh sure, so you can all laugh at me!"

    • claro que, claro que nadie se imaginaba lo que vendría después — of course nobody could imagine what would happen afterwards

    ¡claro que no! — of course not!

    ¡claro que sí! — yes, of course!

    3. SM
    1) (Meteo) bright spell, sunny interval
    2) [de tiempo] lull
    3) (=espacio despejado) [entre personas] space; [entre árboles] clearing; [de pelo] bald patch
    4) [en un texto] gap, space; [en discurso] pause
    5) (Arquit) (=claraboya) skylight; (=abertura) window (opening)
    6) Caribe (Culin) guava jelly
    7) Caribe (=bebida) sugar-cane brandy
    * * *
    I
    - ra adjetivo
    1) ( luminoso) <cielo/habitación> bright
    2) ( pálido) <color/verde/azul> light, pale; < piel> fair

    tiene los ojos claros — she has blue/green/gray eyes

    3) <salsa/sopa> thin
    4) <agua/sonido> clear; <ideas/explicación/instrucciones> clear; <situación/postura> clear

    que quede bien claro que... — I want it to be quite clear that...

    ¿está claro? — is that clear?

    quiero dejar (en) claro que... — I want to make it very o quite clear that...

    a las claras: díselo a las claras tell her straight; llevarlo claro (Esp fam) to be in for a shock; sacar algo en claro de algo — to make sense of something

    5) ( evidente) clear, obvious

    está claro que... — it is clear o obvious that...

    a no ser, claro está, que esté mintiendo — unless, of course, he's lying

    II
    1) < ver> clearly

    voy a hablarte claro — I'm not going to beat around o about the bush

    me lo dijo muy claro — he made it very o quite clear (to me)

    claro que no! — no, of course not!

    claro que sí! — of course, absolutely!

    b) ( como enlace) mind you

    nadie le creyó, claro no es de extrañar — nobody believed him. Mind you, it's not surprising

    claro, así cualquiera puede — well, of course anyone can do it like that

    díselo - claro, para que me regañe ¿no? — (iró) tell him - oh sure, and have him tell me off, right? (iro)

    III
    1) ( en bosque) clearing; (en el pelo, la barba) bald patch
    2) (Meteo) sunny spell o period o interval
    * * *
    = apparent, clear [clearer -comp., clearest -sup.], clear-cut, crisp [crisper -comp., crispest -sup.], definite, distinct, light, neat [neater -comp., neatest -sup.], plain [plainer -comp., plainest -sup.], straightforward, tidy, distinctive, designated, uncloudy, unclouded, unclouded, cloudless, forthright, uncompromising, unqualified, cut and dried [cut and dry], patent.
    Ex. Menu-based information retrieval system have found favour because of their apparent simplicity.
    Ex. In practice the distinction between one term and the next is not very clear.
    Ex. The hierarchical relationship is relatively clear-cut, and rather precise guideliness can be formulated to ensure that the BT/NT relationship is consistently applied.
    Ex. A crisp, even impression became the norm, along with the use of respectable paper and ink.
    Ex. I don't see that we are going to stand a chance unless there is something very definite coming out of this conference and similar conferences where these ideas are advanced.
    Ex. Against this proliferation of hosts there is a distinct awareness amongst users of the need for the rationalisation.
    Ex. To match the small amount of existing furniture which was reused, internal joinery and furniture is in a light coloured timber.
    Ex. What is possibly less easy is to making sure that the guiding stays clean, neat and accurate.
    Ex. To reiterate, there are two main categories of relationship: the syntactic relationships referred to in the last paragraph and plain, for example, in a topic such as 'sugar and health'.
    Ex. Even in this apparently straightforward situation, complications can arise.
    Ex. This was all very tidy, but who was to judge significance?.
    Ex. A patron may submit a beautifully legible request for a book with a distinctive author and title, accompanied by a reference to the journal article from which the citation was gleaned.
    Ex. It is tremendously valuable to library staff (particularly in libraries with a designated departmental structure) to maintain close professional ties with local academic departments.
    Ex. In that case, the peak of solar energy could be at an uncloudy moment in the morning or afternoon, even though the sun wasn't highest in the sky at that moment.
    Ex. As they grow up in those heady post-war years, in the blue unclouded weather of the late 1940s, these are the sisters you'll never forget.
    Ex. As they grow up in those heady post-war years, in the blue unclouded weather of the late 1940s, these are the sisters you'll never forget.
    Ex. This is the first cloudless image of the Earth from space.
    Ex. We have been told once, in clear and forthright terms, what it is that we need.
    Ex. What precipitated that furor was that Panizzi's volume represented a uncompromising rejection of the comfortable ideology of the finding catalog.
    Ex. Wing has not had the almost unqualified praise from the reviewers that Pollard and Redgrave received.
    Ex. One of them snipped Ben Kline's life short, and Marla's determined to get to the root of a case that's anything but cut and dried.
    Ex. It was patent that they could not compete on equal terms with the economic and social forces of a complex civilization.
    ----
    * cantarlas claras = call + a spade a spade.
    * con una meta clara = focused [focussed].
    * con un objetivo claro = focused [focussed].
    * cuestiones poco claras = grey area [gray area].
    * de forma clara = clearly.
    * dejar bien claro = make + it + crystal clear, make + Reflexivo + crystal clear.
    * dejar claro = make + it + clear, send + a clear signal that.
    * de manera clara = distinctly, clearly.
    * de modo claro = transparently.
    * en + Lengua + claro = in plain + Lengua.
    * en términos claros = in simple terms.
    * estar claro = be plain, be out in the open.
    * hablar claro = lay + Posesivo + cards on the table, put + Posesivo + cards on the table.
    * las cosas + estar + claras = the (hand)writing + be + on the wall, see it + coming.
    * más claro el agua = as clear as a bell.
    * más claro que el agua = as clear as a bell.
    * nada claro = unclear, uncleared.
    * no dar una impresión clara = send + mixed signals.
    * no está claro todavía = the jury is still out (on).
    * para que quede más claro = for main effects.
    * pasta de clara de huevo = glair.
    * poco claro = fuzzy [fuzzier - comp., fuzziest -sup.], indistinct, obscure, unclear, untidy, hazy, inconclusive, slurred, clouded, undistinguished, uncleared, indistinctive.
    * poner en claro = clear up.
    * ser algo muy claro = be a dead giveaway.
    * sin una meta clara = unfocused [unfocussed].
    * sin un objetivo claro = non-purposive, unfocused [unfocussed].
    * tan claro como el agua = as clear as a bell.
    * tener Algo claro = clarify + Posesivo + mind.
    * tener claro = be clear in your mind.
    * violeta claro = periwinkle.
    * * *
    I
    - ra adjetivo
    1) ( luminoso) <cielo/habitación> bright
    2) ( pálido) <color/verde/azul> light, pale; < piel> fair

    tiene los ojos claros — she has blue/green/gray eyes

    3) <salsa/sopa> thin
    4) <agua/sonido> clear; <ideas/explicación/instrucciones> clear; <situación/postura> clear

    que quede bien claro que... — I want it to be quite clear that...

    ¿está claro? — is that clear?

    quiero dejar (en) claro que... — I want to make it very o quite clear that...

    a las claras: díselo a las claras tell her straight; llevarlo claro (Esp fam) to be in for a shock; sacar algo en claro de algo — to make sense of something

    5) ( evidente) clear, obvious

    está claro que... — it is clear o obvious that...

    a no ser, claro está, que esté mintiendo — unless, of course, he's lying

    II
    1) < ver> clearly

    voy a hablarte claro — I'm not going to beat around o about the bush

    me lo dijo muy claro — he made it very o quite clear (to me)

    claro que no! — no, of course not!

    claro que sí! — of course, absolutely!

    b) ( como enlace) mind you

    nadie le creyó, claro no es de extrañar — nobody believed him. Mind you, it's not surprising

    claro, así cualquiera puede — well, of course anyone can do it like that

    díselo - claro, para que me regañe ¿no? — (iró) tell him - oh sure, and have him tell me off, right? (iro)

    III
    1) ( en bosque) clearing; (en el pelo, la barba) bald patch
    2) (Meteo) sunny spell o period o interval
    * * *
    = apparent, clear [clearer -comp., clearest -sup.], clear-cut, crisp [crisper -comp., crispest -sup.], definite, distinct, light, neat [neater -comp., neatest -sup.], plain [plainer -comp., plainest -sup.], straightforward, tidy, distinctive, designated, uncloudy, unclouded, unclouded, cloudless, forthright, uncompromising, unqualified, cut and dried [cut and dry], patent.

    Ex: Menu-based information retrieval system have found favour because of their apparent simplicity.

    Ex: In practice the distinction between one term and the next is not very clear.
    Ex: The hierarchical relationship is relatively clear-cut, and rather precise guideliness can be formulated to ensure that the BT/NT relationship is consistently applied.
    Ex: A crisp, even impression became the norm, along with the use of respectable paper and ink.
    Ex: I don't see that we are going to stand a chance unless there is something very definite coming out of this conference and similar conferences where these ideas are advanced.
    Ex: Against this proliferation of hosts there is a distinct awareness amongst users of the need for the rationalisation.
    Ex: To match the small amount of existing furniture which was reused, internal joinery and furniture is in a light coloured timber.
    Ex: What is possibly less easy is to making sure that the guiding stays clean, neat and accurate.
    Ex: To reiterate, there are two main categories of relationship: the syntactic relationships referred to in the last paragraph and plain, for example, in a topic such as 'sugar and health'.
    Ex: Even in this apparently straightforward situation, complications can arise.
    Ex: This was all very tidy, but who was to judge significance?.
    Ex: A patron may submit a beautifully legible request for a book with a distinctive author and title, accompanied by a reference to the journal article from which the citation was gleaned.
    Ex: It is tremendously valuable to library staff (particularly in libraries with a designated departmental structure) to maintain close professional ties with local academic departments.
    Ex: In that case, the peak of solar energy could be at an uncloudy moment in the morning or afternoon, even though the sun wasn't highest in the sky at that moment.
    Ex: As they grow up in those heady post-war years, in the blue unclouded weather of the late 1940s, these are the sisters you'll never forget.
    Ex: As they grow up in those heady post-war years, in the blue unclouded weather of the late 1940s, these are the sisters you'll never forget.
    Ex: This is the first cloudless image of the Earth from space.
    Ex: We have been told once, in clear and forthright terms, what it is that we need.
    Ex: What precipitated that furor was that Panizzi's volume represented a uncompromising rejection of the comfortable ideology of the finding catalog.
    Ex: Wing has not had the almost unqualified praise from the reviewers that Pollard and Redgrave received.
    Ex: One of them snipped Ben Kline's life short, and Marla's determined to get to the root of a case that's anything but cut and dried.
    Ex: It was patent that they could not compete on equal terms with the economic and social forces of a complex civilization.
    * cantarlas claras = call + a spade a spade.
    * con una meta clara = focused [focussed].
    * con un objetivo claro = focused [focussed].
    * cuestiones poco claras = grey area [gray area].
    * de forma clara = clearly.
    * dejar bien claro = make + it + crystal clear, make + Reflexivo + crystal clear.
    * dejar claro = make + it + clear, send + a clear signal that.
    * de manera clara = distinctly, clearly.
    * de modo claro = transparently.
    * en + Lengua + claro = in plain + Lengua.
    * en términos claros = in simple terms.
    * estar claro = be plain, be out in the open.
    * hablar claro = lay + Posesivo + cards on the table, put + Posesivo + cards on the table.
    * las cosas + estar + claras = the (hand)writing + be + on the wall, see it + coming.
    * más claro el agua = as clear as a bell.
    * más claro que el agua = as clear as a bell.
    * nada claro = unclear, uncleared.
    * no dar una impresión clara = send + mixed signals.
    * no está claro todavía = the jury is still out (on).
    * para que quede más claro = for main effects.
    * pasta de clara de huevo = glair.
    * poco claro = fuzzy [fuzzier - comp., fuzziest -sup.], indistinct, obscure, unclear, untidy, hazy, inconclusive, slurred, clouded, undistinguished, uncleared, indistinctive.
    * poner en claro = clear up.
    * ser algo muy claro = be a dead giveaway.
    * sin una meta clara = unfocused [unfocussed].
    * sin un objetivo claro = non-purposive, unfocused [unfocussed].
    * tan claro como el agua = as clear as a bell.
    * tener Algo claro = clarify + Posesivo + mind.
    * tener claro = be clear in your mind.
    * violeta claro = periwinkle.

    * * *
    claro1 -ra
    A (luminoso) ‹cielo› bright; ‹habitación› bright, light
    el día amaneció claro the day dawned bright and clear
    B (pálido) ‹color/verde/azul› light, pale; ‹piel› fair, white
    tiene los ojos claros she has blue/green/gray eyes
    el típico sueco rubio y de ojos claros the typical blue-eyed, blond Swede
    C ‹salsa/sopa› thin; ‹café/té› weak
    D ‹agua/sonido› clear
    habló con voz clara she spoke in a clear voice
    E ‹ideas/explicación/instrucciones› clear; ‹situación/postura› clear
    consiguieron una clara ventaja they gained a clear advantage
    tiene muy claro lo que quiere en la vida she is very clear o sure about what she wants out of life, she knows exactly what she wants out of life
    que quede bien claro que … I want it to be quite clear that …
    lo harás como yo te diga, ¿está claro? you'll do it the way I say, is that clear o do I make myself clear?
    quiero dejar (en) claro que … or que quede bien (en) claro que … I want to make it very o quite clear that …, let it be very o quite clear that …
    a las claras: no me lo dijo a las claras she didn't tell me in so many words o straight out o ( AmE) right off
    no seas cobarde y díselo a las claras don't be a coward, tell her straight
    llevarlo claro ( Esp fam) (estar equivocado) to be in for a shock o a disappointment; (enfrentarse a algo difícil) to have one's work cut out ( colloq)
    pasar la noche en claro to lie o be awake all night
    sacar algo en claro de algo to make sense of sth
    ¿tú sacaste algo en claro de lo que dijo? did you manage to make any sense of what he said?
    F (evidente) clear, obvious
    hay pruebas claras de que miente there is clear evidence that he is lying
    está claro que ella es la culpable it is clear o obvious that she is the culprit, she is clearly o obviously the culprit
    … a no ser, claro está, que esté mintiendo … unless, of course, he's lying
    A ‹hablar/ver›
    voy a hablarte claro I'm not going to beat around o about the bush, I'm going to give it to you straight ( colloq)
    ahora lo veo claro I see it all clearly now, now I get it! ( colloq)
    me lo dijo muy claro he made it very o quite clear (to me)
    claro y raspado ( Ven fam); straight
    me lo dijo todo claro y raspado he told me straight, he didn't beat around o about the bush
    B ( indep)
    ¡claro que lo sabe! of course she knows!
    ¿te gustaría verlo? — ¡claro! would you like to see it? — yes, I'd love to o ( colloq) sure!
    ¿lo hizo? — ¡claro que no! did he do it? — no, of course not! o no, of course he didn't!
    2 (como enlace) mind you
    nadie le creyó, claro que conociéndolo no es de extrañar nobody believed him. Mind you, knowing him it's not surprising
    lo ayudó la madre — claro, así cualquiera his mother helped him — well, of course anyone can do it like that
    anda, díselo tú — claro, para que me eche a mí la bronca ¿no? ( iró); go on, you tell him — oh sure o oh fine o I see, so that way it's me he gets mad at, right? ( iro)
    A (en un bosque) clearing; (en el pelo, la barba) bald patch
    había algunos claros en las gradas there were a few empty spaces in the stand
    B ( Meteo) sunny spell o period o interval
    Compuesto:
    moonlight
    * * *

     

    claro 1
    ◊ -ra adjetivo

    a) ( luminoso) ‹cielo/habitación› bright

    b) ( pálido) ‹color/verde/azul› light, pale;

    ‹ piel› fair;
    ◊ tiene los ojos claros she has blue/green/gray eyes

    c) ‹salsa/sopa› thin

    d) ‹agua/sonido› clear;

    ‹ideas/explicación/instrucciones› clear;
    ‹situación/postura› clear;

    ¿está claro? is that clear?;
    quiero dejar (en) claro que … I want to make it clear that …;
    sacar algo en claro de algo to make sense of sth

    ◊ está claro que … it is clear o obvious that …;

    a no ser, claro está, que esté mintiendo unless, of course, he's lying
    claro 2 adverbio
    1 ‹ ver› clearly;
    ◊ voy a hablarte claro I'm not going to beat around o about the bush;

    me lo dijo muy claro he made it very quite clear (to me)
    2 ( indep) ( en exclamaciones de asentimiento) of course
    ■ sustantivo masculino

    (en pelo, barba) bald patch
    b) (Meteo) sunny spell o period

    claro,-a
    I adjetivo
    1 (despejado, evidente) clear: tengo muy claro que no va a volver, I'm quite sure she won't come back
    un asunto poco claro, a shady deal
    2 (poco espeso) thin
    3 (color) light
    II sustantivo masculino
    1 (de un bosque) clearing
    2 (entre las nubes) break in the clouds
    3 claro de luna, moonlight
    III adverbio clearly: deberías hablar claro, you must speak clearly
    IV exclamación of course!
    ¡claro que puedo!, of course I can!
    ♦ Locuciones: a las claras, clearly
    dejar algo claro, to make something clear
    lo lleva claro si piensa que voy a tolerarlo, she can be quite sure that i?m not going to put up with it
    sacar algo en claro, to draw a conclusion: después de tanta discusión, no sacamos nada en claro, we were back to square one after hours of discussion
    ' claro' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    clara
    - escarceo
    - estar
    - hombre
    - nebulosa
    - nebuloso
    - nítida
    - nítido
    - notoria
    - notorio
    - patente
    - poca
    - poco
    - precisa
    - preciso
    - pues
    - rondar
    - sacar
    - salvaje
    - agua
    - celeste
    - color
    - constar
    - hablar
    - lavado
    - neto
    - oscuro
    - palpable
    - que
    - quedar
    - visto
    English:
    ale
    - apparent
    - articulate
    - break
    - broad
    - clean-cut
    - clear
    - clear-cut
    - clearing
    - confusing
    - crystal-clear
    - decided
    - distinct
    - enough
    - fuzzy
    - good
    - ice-blue
    - indistinct
    - let
    - light
    - lucid
    - mousy
    - mud
    - neat
    - obscure
    - outset
    - pale
    - plain
    - precise
    - sharp
    - speak out
    - spell out
    - straight
    - surely
    - tenuous
    - then
    - thin
    - transparently
    - unclear
    - unequivocal
    - why
    - blur
    - by
    - certainly
    - clearly
    - course
    - crystal
    - flash
    - increasingly
    - more
    * * *
    claro, -a
    ♦ adj
    1. [luminoso] bright;
    una habitación clara a bright o light room
    2. [color] light;
    verde claro light green
    3. [sonido] clear;
    hablaba con una voz clara she spoke in a clear voice
    4. [sin nubes] clear;
    un día/cielo claro a clear day/sky
    5. [diluido] [té, café] weak;
    [salsa, sopa] thin;
    no me gusta el chocolate claro I don't like my hot chocolate thin
    6. [poco tupido] thin, sparse
    7. [persona, explicación, ideas, libro] clear;
    hablaba con un lenguaje claro she spoke in clear terms;
    dejar algo claro to make sth clear;
    poner algo en claro to get sth clear, to clear sth up;
    que quede (bien) claro que no fue idea mía I want to make it (quite) clear that it wasn't my idea;
    sacar algo en claro (de) to make sth out (from);
    después de escuchar su explicación no saqué nada en claro after listening to her explanation, I was none the wiser;
    tengo claro que no puedo contar con él one thing I'm quite sure about is that I can't rely on him, one thing's for sure, I can't rely on him;
    verlo claro [estar seguro] to be sure;
    pasar una noche en claro to have a sleepless night;
    Esp Fam
    llevarlo o [m5]tenerlo claro: ¡lo lleva o [m5] tiene claro si piensa que le vamos a ayudar! if he thinks we're going to help him, he can think again!;
    si no vienen ellos, lo tenemos claro if they don't come, we've had it
    8. [obvio, evidente] clear;
    el resultado fue claro the result was clear;
    ¿está claro? is that clear?;
    está claro que van a ganar it's clear they're going to win;
    está claro que te quieren engañar it's obvious that they are trying to deceive you, they are obviously trying to deceive you;
    está claro o [m5]claro está que si no quieres, no estás obligado a participar of course o obviously, you're not obliged to participate if you don't want to;
    a no ser, claro, que tengas una idea mejor unless, of course, you have a better idea;
    está más claro que el agua it's perfectly o crystal clear;
    allí no vuelvo, eso está más claro que el agua I'm not going there again, that's for certain
    ♦ nm
    1. [en bosque] clearing;
    [en multitud] space, gap;
    vi un claro en la fila I saw a gap in the row
    2. [en cielo nublado] break in the clouds;
    se esperan nubes y claros it will be cloudy with some bright spells;
    en cuanto haya un claro salimos we'll go out as soon as it brightens up
    3. [calvicie, calva] bald patch
    4. [en pintura] highlight
    5. Arquit skylight
    6. claro de luna moonlight
    ♦ adv
    clearly;
    hablar claro to speak clearly;
    dilo claro, ¿te interesa o no? tell me straight, are you interested or not?;
    ¡claro! of course!;
    ¡claro que sí!, ¡pues claro! of course!;
    ¡claro que no! of course not!;
    ¡claro que me gusta! of course I like it!;
    Irónico
    ¿me ayudarás? – claro, no pensaba en otra cosa will you help me? – oh sure, I wouldn't dream of doing anything else;
    Irónico
    ve tú primero – claro, así si hay algún agujero me caigo yo you go first – oh great o thanks a lot, that way if there's a hole I'll be the one to fall into it;
    claro, con un jugador más ya se puede of course, with an extra player it's hardly surprising;
    la obra no tuvo éxito, claro que conociendo al director no me sorprende the play wasn't a success, but then again that's hardly surprising knowing the director
    ♦ a las claras loc adv
    clearly
    * * *
    I adj
    clear;
    poner en claro make clear;
    dejar claro make plain;
    quedar claro be clear;
    tener algo claro be sure o clear about sth;
    pasar la noche en claro lie awake all night, not sleep a wink;
    a las claras clearly
    2 color light
    3 ( luminoso) bright
    4 salsa thin
    II adv
    :
    hablar claro speak plainly;
    ¡claro! of course!;
    claro está of course
    III m
    1 METEO clear spell
    2 en bosque clearing
    * * *
    claro adv
    1) : clearly
    habla más claro: speak more clearly
    2) : of course, surely
    ¡claro!, ¡claro que sí!: absolutely!, of course!
    claro que entendió: of course she understood
    claro, -ra adj
    1) : bright, clear
    2) : pale, fair, light
    3) : clear, evident
    claro nm
    1) : clearing
    2)
    claro de luna : moonlight
    * * *
    claro1 adj
    1. (en general) clear
    2. (luminoso) bright
    3. (color) light
    claro2 adv clearly
    claro3 interj of course
    claro4 n (en meteorología) sunny interval

    Spanish-English dictionary > claro

  • 10 Porter, Charles Talbot

    [br]
    b. 18 January 1826 Auburn, New York, USA
    d. 1910 USA
    [br]
    American inventor of a stone dressing machine, an improved centrifugal governor and a high-speed steam engine.
    [br]
    Porter graduated from Hamilton College, New York, in 1845, read law in his father's office, and in the autumn of 1847 was admitted to the Bar. He practised for six or seven years in Rochester, New York, and then in New York City. He was drawn into engineering when aged about 30, first through a client who claimed to have invented a revolutionary type of engine and offered Porter the rights to it as payment of a debt. Having lent more money, Porter saw neither the man nor the engine again. Porter followed this with a similar experience over a patent for a stone dressing machine, except this time the machine was built. It proved to be a failure, but Porter set about redesigning it and found that it was vastly improved when it ran faster. His improved machine went into production. It was while trying to get the steam engine that drove the stone dressing machine to run more smoothly that he made a discovery that formed the basis for his subsequent work.
    Porter took the ordinary Watt centrifugal governor and increased the speed by a factor of about ten; although he had to reduce the size of the weights, he gained a motion that was powerful. To make the device sufficiently responsive at the right speed, he balanced the centrifugal forces by a counterweight. This prevented the weights flying outwards until the optimum speed was reached, so that the steam valves remained fully open until that point and then the weights reacted more quickly to variations in speed. He took out a patent in 1858, and its importance was quickly recognized. At first he manufactured and sold the governors himself in a specially equipped factory, because this was the only way he felt he could get sufficient accuracy to ensure a perfect action. For marine use, the counterweight was replaced by a spring.
    Higher speed had brought the advantage of smoother running and so he thought that the same principles could be applied to the steam engine itself, but it was to take extensive design modifications over several years before his vision was realized. In the winter of 1860–1, J.F. Allen met Porter and sketched out his idea of a new type of steam inlet valve. Porter saw the potential of this for his high-speed engine and Allen took out patents for it in 1862. The valves were driven by a new valve gear designed by Pius Fink. Porter decided to display his engine at the International Exhibition in London in 1862, but it had to be assembled on site because the parts were finished in America only just in time to be shipped to meet the deadline. Running at 150 rpm, the engine caused a sensation, but as it was non-condensing there were few orders. Porter added condensing apparatus and, after the failure of Ormerod Grierson \& Co., entered into an agreement with Joseph Whitworth to build the engines. Four were exhibited at the 1867 Paris Exposition Universelle, but Whitworth and Porter fell out and in 1868 Porter returned to America.
    Porter established another factory to build his engine in America, but he ran into all sorts of difficulties, both mechanical and financial. Some engines were built, and serious production was started c. 1874, but again there were further problems and Porter had to leave his firm. High-speed engines based on his designs continued to be made until after 1907 by the Southwark Foundry and Machine Company, Philadelphia, so Porter's ideas were proved viable and led to many other high-speed designs.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1908, Engineering Reminiscences, New York: J. Wiley \& Sons; reprinted 1985, Bradley, Ill.: Lindsay (autobiography; the main source of information about his life).
    Further Reading
    R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (examines his governor and steam engine).
    O.Mayr, 1974, "Yankee practice and engineering theory; Charles T.Porter and the dynamics of the high-speed engine", Technology and Culture 16 (4) (examines his governor and steam engine).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Porter, Charles Talbot

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